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CONTENTS |
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PREFACE |
i
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AN OUTLOOK FOR FUTURE
MEMBRANE DEVELOPMENT |
iii
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CHAPTER 1
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INTRODUCTION
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SUMMARY |
Reverse osmosis plant |
3
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| 1.01 |
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General considerations |
3
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| 1.02 |
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Historical and key developments of membranes
and membrane processes |
5
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| 1.03 |
|
Advantages and limitations of membrane processes |
8
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| 1.04 |
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Cost considerations and environmental impact |
8
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| 1.05 |
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The membrane based industry |
10
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| 1.06 |
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The membrane market and its future development |
11
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| 1.07 |
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The future of membrane science and technology |
12
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| 1.08 |
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References |
13
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CHAPTER 2
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FUNDAMENTALS
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SUMMARY |
17
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| 2.01 |
|
General considerations |
17
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| 2.02 |
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Definition of terms |
17
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2.02.01 |
Definition of a membrane and its
function |
17
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| 2.03 |
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Definition of various membrane processes |
19
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| 2.04 |
|
The membrane transport mechanisms |
21
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| 2.05 |
|
Materials and structures of synthetic
membranes |
22
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2.05.01 |
Symmetric and asymmetric membranes |
23
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2.05.02 |
Porous membranes |
24
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2.05.03 |
Homogeneous dense membranes |
25
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2.05.04 |
Ion-exchange membranes |
25
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2.05.05 |
Liquid membranes |
25
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2.05.06 |
Fixed carrier membranes |
26
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| |
2.05.07 |
Other membranes |
26
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| 2.06 |
|
Fluxes and driving forces in membrane
separation processes |
27
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2.06.01 |
Interdependence of fluxes and driving
forces |
31
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| 2.07 |
|
Membrane separation properties |
33
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| 2.08 |
|
Basic thermodynamic relations with
relevance in membrane processes |
34
|
| 2.09 |
|
Basic electrochemical
relations with relevance in membrane processes |
39
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| |
2.09.01 |
Electron and ion conductivity
and Ohm's law |
39
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| |
2.09.02 |
Coulombs law and the
electric field effect on ions in solution |
41
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| |
2.09.03 |
The electric double
layer at the surface of membranes |
43
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| |
2.09.04 |
Electrical dipoles and
intermolecular forces |
46
|
| 2.10 |
|
Chemical and electrochemical
equilibrium in membrane systems |
47
|
| |
2.10.01 |
Water dissociation equilibrium
and the pH- and pK-values of acids and bases |
47
|
| |
2.10.02 |
Osmotic equilibrium,
osmotic pressure, osmosis and reverse osmosis |
49
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| |
2.10.03 |
The electrochemical equilibrium
and the Donnan potential |
51
|
| 2.11 |
|
Mathematical description
of mass transport in membranes |
53
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| 2.12 |
|
References |
58
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Schematic diagram of various modes of mass transport in membranes |
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CHAPTER 3
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PRINCIPLES OF MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES
|
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SUMMARY |
61
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| 3.01 |
|
General considerations |
61
|
| 3.02 |
|
The principle of microfiltration |
64
|
| 3.03 |
|
The principle of ultrafiltration |
66
|
| 3.04 |
|
The principle of nanofiltration |
69
|
| 3.05 |
|
The principle of reverse
osmosis |
74
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| |
3.05.01 |
Reverse osmosis mass
transport described by the solution-diffusion model |
75
|
| |
3.05.02 |
Reverse osmosis transport
described by the phenomenological equations |
76
|
| 3.06 |
|
The principle of gas
separation |
79
|
| |
3.06.01 |
Gas separation by Knudsen
diffusion |
79
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| |
3.06.02 |
Gas transport by the
solution-diffusion mechanism in a polymer matrix |
81
|
| 3.07 |
|
The principle of pervaporation |
86
|
| 3.08 |
|
The principle of dialysis |
88
|
| |
3.08.01 |
Dialysis mass transport
of components carrying no electric charges |
89
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| |
3.08.02 |
Dialysis mass transport
of electrolytes in a membrane without fixed ions |
90
|
| |
3.08.03 |
Dialysis mass transport of electrolytes
in ion-exchange membranes |
91
|
| 3.09 |
|
The principle of electrodialysis |
93
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| |
3.09.01 |
Electrical current and
ion fluxes |
94
|
| |
3.09.02 |
Electrodialysis with
bipolar membranes |
97
|
| 3.10 |
|
The principle of membrane
contactors |
100
|
| |
3.10.01 |
Membrane contactors
used to separate two liquid immiscible phases |
100
|
| |
3.10.02 |
Membrane contactors
used to separate two miscible liquids: membrane distillation |
103
|
| 3.11 |
|
The principle of membrane
reactors |
110
|
| |
3.11.01 |
Biological membrane
reactors |
112
|
| |
3.11.02 |
Chemical membrane reactors |
117
|
| 3.12 |
|
Energy requirements
in membrane processes |
119
|
| 3.13 |
|
References |
122
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CHAPTER 4
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MEMBRANE SEPARATION PROCESSES DESIGN AND
OPERATION
|
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|
SUMMARY |
127
|
| 4.01 |
|
General considerations |
127
|
| 4.02 |
|
Membrane filtration
processes |
127
|
| |
4.02.01 |
Recovery rate, membrane
rejection, retentate and filtrate concentrations |
128
|
| |
4.02.02 |
Solute losses in membrane
filtration processes |
131
|
| |
4.02.03 |
Effect of osmotic pressure
on the filtration rate |
132
|
| |
4.02.04 |
Operation modes in filtration
processes |
132
|
| |
4.02.05 |
Stages and cascades
in membrane filtration |
133
|
| |
4.02.06 |
Diafiltration |
134
|
| |
4.02.06 |
Energy consumption and
process costs in membrane filtration processes |
|
| |
4.02.08 |
Product costs in filtration
processes |
138
|
| 4.03 |
|
Gas separation |
139
|
| |
4.03.01 |
Gas separation modes
of operation |
140
|
| |
4.03.02 |
Staging in gas separation
and the reflux cascade |
141
|
| |
4.03.03 |
Calculation of gas separation for
a system with complete mixing |
144
|
| |
4.03.04 |
Energy consumption and cost of gas
separation |
146
|
| 4.04 |
|
Pervaporation |
147
|
| |
4.04.01 |
Pervaporation modes
of operation |
148
|
| |
4.04.02 |
Staging in pervaporation |
149
|
| |
4.04.03 |
Pervaporation energy
consumption and costs |
150
|
| 4.05 |
|
Dialysis |
150
|
| |
4.05.01 |
The process principle |
151
|
| |
4.05.02 |
Dialysis process and
system design |
152
|
| |
4.05.03 |
Process costs in dialysis |
153
|
| 4.06 |
|
Electrodialysis |
153
|
| |
4.06.01 |
The process principle
and the electrodialysis stack |
153
|
| |
4.06.02 |
Electrodialysis process
design and operation |
158
|
| |
4.06.03 |
Energy requirements
in an electrodialysis desalination process |
160
|
| |
4.06.04 |
Electrodialysis process
costs |
161
|
| 4.07 |
|
Bipolar membrane electrodialysis |
163
|
| |
4.07.01 |
The bipolar membrane
electrodialysis stack and process design |
163
|
| |
4.07.02 |
Bipolar membrane electrodialysis
energy requirements and process cost |
|
| 4.08 |
|
Continuous electrodeionization
process design |
167
|
| |
4.08.01 |
System components and
design aspects |
168
|
| |
4.08.02 |
Operational problems
and cost of continuous electrodeionization |
170
|
| 4.09 |
|
Electrochemical synthesis
with ion-exchange membranes |
170
|
| |
4.09.01 |
Electrolysis process
design parameters |
171
|
| |
4.09.02 |
The electrolysis stack
construction |
172
|
| |
4.09.03 |
Energy consumption and
process costs of the chlor-alkali production |
|
| 4.10 |
|
Ion-exchange membranes
in energy storage and conversion |
175
|
| |
4.10.01 |
Principle and key components
of fuel cell energy conversion |
177
|
| |
4.10.02 |
Energy production and
efficiency of fuel cells |
179
|
| |
4.10.03 |
Fuel cell design and
process efficiency and costs |
181
|
| 4.11 |
|
Membrane contactors |
182
|
| |
4.11.01 |
Membrane strippers,
scrubbers and extraction |
183
|
| |
4.11.02 |
Membrane distillation |
184
|
| |
4.11.03 |
Membrane crystallizer |
185
|
| |
4.11.04 |
Membrane emulsifier |
186
|
| 4.12 |
|
Membrane reactors |
187
|
| 4.13 |
|
Biological membrane
reactors |
187
|
| |
4.13.01 |
Membrane bioreactors
with membranes used as a separative unit |
188
|
| |
4.13.02 |
Membrane bioreactors
with enzyme segregated in the membrane module |
190
|
| |
4.13.03 |
Biocatalytic membrane
reactors |
191
|
| |
4.13.04 |
Biocatalytic membrane
reactors with biocatalysts segregated within the membrane |
191
|
| |
4.13.05 |
Biocatalytic membrane
reactors with biocatalysts gelified on the membrane |
193
|
| |
4.13.06 |
Biocatalytic membrane
reactors with biocatalysts bound to the membrane |
|
| 4.14 |
|
Submerged membrane bioreactors |
194
|
| 4.15 |
|
Chemical membrane reactors |
196
|
| 4.16 |
|
References |
199
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
Protein crystals in membrane crystallizers |
|
| |
|
|
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|
CHAPTER 5
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|
CONCENTRATION POLARIZATION AND MEMBRANE MODULES
|
|
| |
|
SUMMARY |
205
|
| 5.01 |
|
General considerations |
205
|
| 5.02 |
|
Concentration polarization
in filtration processes |
206
|
| |
5.02.01 |
Concentration polarization
without solute precipitation |
207
|
| |
5.02.02 |
Concentration polarization
in turbulent flow described by the film model |
207
|
| |
5.02.03 |
Concentration polarization
in laminar flow membrane devices |
211
|
| |
5.02.04 |
Rigorous analysis of
concentration polarization |
212
|
| |
5.02.05 |
Concentration polarization
with solute precipitation at the membrane surface |
212
|
| 5.03 |
|
Membrane fouling and
its causes |
220
|
| |
5.03.01 |
Biofouling |
221
|
| |
5.03.02 |
Prevention of membrane
fouling |
223
|
| 5.04 |
|
Concentration polarization
in other membrane separation processes |
225
|
| |
5.04.01 |
Concentration polarization
in dialysis |
225
|
| |
5.04.02 |
Concentration polarization
in electrodialysis |
226
|
| |
5.04.03 |
Concentration polarization
in pervaporation |
226
|
| |
5.04.04 |
Concentration polarization
in gas separation |
226
|
| 5.05 |
|
Membrane modules |
226
|
| |
5.05.01 |
The cartridge membrane
module |
227
|
| |
5.05.02 |
The plate-and-frame
membrane module |
228
|
| |
5.05.03 |
The spiral-wound module |
230
|
| |
5.05.04 |
The tubular membrane
module |
231
|
| |
5.05.05 |
The capillary and hollow
fiber membrane module |
232
|
| |
5.05.06 |
Other membrane modules |
233
|
| |
5.5.6.1 |
Rotating and vibrating
membrane modules |
234
|
| 5.06 |
|
References |
236
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
CHAPTER 6
|
|
| |
|
MEMBRANE PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION
|
|
| |
|
SUMMARY |
241
|
| 6.01 |
|
General considerations |
241
|
| 6.02 |
|
Membrane preparation |
241
|
| 6.03 |
|
Preparation of porous
membranes |
243
|
| |
6.03.01 |
Symmetric porous membranes
prepared by sintering, track-etching, and leaching techniques |
243
|
| |
6.03.02 |
Symmetric porous polymer
membranes made by phase inversion techniques |
246
|
| 6.04 |
|
Preparation of asymmetric
membranes |
248
|
| |
6.04.01 |
The preparation of integral
asymmetric membranes by phase inversi |
|
| |
6.04.02 |
The practical membrane
preparation by the diffusion induced phase separation process |
250
|
| |
6.04.03 |
The practical membrane
preparation by the temperature induced phase separation process |
250
|
| 6.05 |
|
Rationalization of the
phase inversion membrane preparation process |
251
|
| |
6.05.01 |
Phenomenological description
of the phase separation process |
251
|
| 6.06 |
|
Preparation of composite
membranes |
253
|
| |
6.06.01 |
Techniques used for
the preparation of polymeric composite membranes |
|
| 6.07 |
|
Preparation of inorganic
composite membranes |
258
|
| |
6.07.01 |
Suspension coating and
the sol-gel process |
259
|
| |
6.07.02 |
Perovskite membranes |
260
|
| |
6.07.03 |
Zeolite membranes |
262
|
| 6.08 |
|
Preparation of homogeneous
solid membranes |
265
|
| 6.09 |
|
Preparation of liquid
membranes |
265
|
| 6.10 |
|
Preparation of ion-exchange
membranes |
267
|
| 6.11 |
|
Membrane characterization |
271
|
| |
6.11.01 |
Characterization of
porous membranes |
272
|
| |
6.11.02 |
The pure water flux
of micro- and ultrafiltration membranes |
272
|
| |
6.11.03 |
Microscopic techniques |
273
|
| |
6.11.04 |
The mechanical properties
of membranes |
273
|
| |
6.11.05 |
Membrane separation
properties determined by filtration test |
275
|
| |
6.11.06 |
Retention and molecular
weight cut-off |
275
|
| |
6.11.07 |
The bacterial challenge
test |
276
|
| |
6.11.08 |
Membrane properties
determined by membrane pore size meas |
|
| 6.12 |
|
Characterization of
homogeneous membranes |
280
|
| 6.13 |
|
Characterization of
ion-exchange membranes |
281
|
| |
6.13.01 |
Hydraulic permeability
of ion-exchange membranes |
281
|
| |
6.13.02 |
Long-term chemical stability
of membranes |
282
|
| 6.14 |
|
Determination of electrochemical
properties of membranes |
282
|
| |
6.14.01 |
The ion-exchange capacity
of a membrane |
282
|
| |
6.14.02 |
Determination of the
electrical resistance of ion-exchange membranes |
|
| |
6.14.03 |
Permselectivity of ion-exchange
membranes |
291
|
| |
6.14.04 |
Membrane permeation
selectivity for different counter-ions |
294
|
| |
6.14.05 |
Water transport in ion-exchange
membranes |
294
|
| 6.15 |
|
Characterization of
special property membranes |
297
|
| 6.16 |
|
References |
299
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
CHAPTER 7
|
|
| |
|
MEMBRANES AND MEMBRANE PROCESSES APPLICATIONS
|
|
| |
|
SUMMARY |
307
|
| 7.01 |
|
General considerations |
307
|
| 7.02 |
|
Membrane applications
in water treatment |
308
|
| |
7.02.01 |
Water desalination |
309
|
| |
7.02.02 |
Production of industrial
water |
312
|
| |
7.02.04 |
Wastewater treatment |
316
|
| 7.03 |
|
Chemical industry |
319
|
| |
7.03.01 |
Gas separation |
319
|
| |
7.03.02 |
Solvent separation |
320
|
| |
7.03.03 |
Recover of chemicals
and pollutants from water and waste water |
321
|
| |
7.03.04 |
Fuel cells and energy
storage systems |
326
|
| 7.04 |
|
Food and beverage industry |
327
|
| |
7.04.01 |
Milk and dairy |
329
|
| |
7.04.02 |
Fruit, citrus and vegetal
juices |
332
|
| |
7.04.03 |
Alcoholic beverages |
336
|
| |
7.04.04 |
Other membrane application
in food and beverage |
336
|
| 7.05 |
|
Pharmaceutical and biotechnology
industry |
339
|
| |
7.05.01 |
Pharmaceuticals from
cell cultures |
340
|
| |
7.05.02 |
Optically pure enantiomers |
345
|
| |
7.05.03 |
Antibiotics |
345
|
| |
7.05.04 |
Membranes in proteomics |
348
|
| |
7.05.05 |
Virus removal |
348
|
| 7.06 |
|
Biomedical application |
349
|
| |
7.06.01 |
Hemodialyzer |
349
|
| |
7.06.02 |
Bioartificial kidney |
350
|
| |
7.06.03 |
Bioartificial liver |
352
|
| |
7.06.04 |
Artificial liver |
352
|
| |
7.06.05 |
Artificial lung |
353
|
| |
7.06.07 |
Immunoisolation of drug
producing cell tissues |
354
|
| |
7.06.08 |
Membranes in regenerative
biology and medicine |
355
|
| 7.07 |
|
Analytical and diagnostic applications |
357
|
| |
7.07.01 |
Microbiological and mammalian cell
assay |
357
|
| |
7.07.02 |
Biochemistry and molecular biology
assay |
358
|
| |
7.07.03 |
Pharmaceutical and medical care |
359
|
| 7.08 |
|
References |
360
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
LIST OF SYMBOLS |
369
|
| |
|
APPENDIX |
377
|
| |
|
INDEX |
387
|
